All forms of communication are capable of incorporating hidden
layers of meaning into their content. Even without knowing it, everything
that we say to each other can be analyzed to reveal assumptions, underlying
values, or arguments in disguise.
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| Hidden arguments shape reality subconsciously. |
Arguments in Disguise
- Objectivity Disguise –
This is best exemplified when news reporters relay the details of an event, but
pick and choose which details to include and which to omit, in order to persuade
the audience a certain way.
- Personal Taste Disguise – The juxtaposition of things we
already like with things that others are arguing in favor for – like using sex
appeal to sell literally anything.
- Spin – Interpreting the facts of an event to one’s
advantage, or to the disadvantage of one’s opponents. See: politics.
- Propaganda – You’ll never see this unsavory manipulation
of logic and despicable appeal to negative emotion in the glorious land of the
free, and home of the brave. If you do, it's because of the communists.
Underlying Values
Arguments are strongest when they tap into the commonly accepted
set of ideals considered to be “good.”
Beneath every cause or claim there should be a philosophical reason why
the claim being made is a representation of those cherished values. In America, the values of freedom, happiness,
safety, wisdom, and wealth are among those which are automatically accepted as
good.
Assumptions
An assumption is an idea that is taken for granted as being true,
and links the claim to its support. Sometimes the assumption is clearly
stated, while at other times it can be so subtle that we aren't even aware of
it as we make our arguments. For
example, here is a statement with a hidden assumption (or maybe more than one):
Scientists have identified the combustion of fossil fuels as the
cause of global warming.
The argument can then be broken down into its claim and support,
which may reveal any assumptions.
Claim - Burning fossil fuels causes global warming.
Support - Scientists said so.
So then what do we assume if the argument must be true?
Scientists:
- Have done enough research to reach a conclusive answer
- Are educated enough to not be completely mistaken
- Are telling the truth (as opposed to making it up for
ulterior motives...sneaky evil scientists trying to take over the world with
laws combating pollution!)
Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher, created a system for
discovering hidden assumptions, also known by him as "warranting
assumptions." Here are the elements in that system, along with some
examples.
- Claim - a conclusion or assertion about something
ex: We need to wean ourselves off of all forms of fossil
fuels.
- Support - the evidence and reasoning used to persuade the
audience of the claim's merits
ex: The evidence clearly shows an unequivocal link between
the industrial scale release of greenhouse gases with the resulting rise in
global average temperatures.
- Warranting Assumption - a statement that logically links
the claim to the support
ex: Global warming has the potential to negatively impact
many forms of life, especially humans.
- Backing - support or evidence for the warranting
assumption
ex: The ecological impacts already observed in this early
stage signal a bleak outlook for ecosystems in sensitive zones.
- Modal Qualifier - places conditions on the claim to limit
its scope
ex: While this cannot be accomplished immediately, society
should take steps towards achieving this goal gradually.
- Rebuttal - a statement that refutes another claim
ex: There is no other naturally occurring factor known to
man that can adequately explain the warming at such an unprecedented rate.
Unfortunately in our society today, reading is much more than just interpreting the words in front of you. There can also be hidden messages and agendas lying in those words and you can be subliminally influenced without even knowing it. Objectivity disguise happens on a day-to-day basis. It is just like when you get caught doing something you weren’t supposed to, and you tell all of the parts of the story, except the ones where you were doing something bad. This also happens in news. “The man barged into the building and broke down the door for no reason.” Leaving out the fact that it was on fire and his animals were trapped. Propaganda is also a major issue. It used to be completely fair game and almost anything was fair. For example, there were war posters all over America that said “I’m not scared to fight for my country,” and portrayed a woman in an army outfit. This is a prime example of words nearly guilt-tripping you into doing something. You almost feel like you have to register for the army after seeing something like that. Having disguised arguments really leads people to be skeptical about things. Whenever you are presented with something that is “free” what is the first thing you ask? “What’s the catch?” Then this in turn leads to phrases like, “If it’s too good to be true, it probably is.” While it isn’t a bad thing we are aware, it is still unfortunate we always feel we are being schemed.
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